Overview of the Encyclopedia Chapters
Context for Developing and Implementing Language/Reading Curricula at the Fourth Grade
The PIRLS 2016 Encyclopedia chapters elaborate further on the diversity across countries and the unique challenges involved in teaching young students around the world to learn to read. The majority of the PIRLS countries provide language/reading instruction in multiple languages. A substantial number have more than one official language, several require learning more than one language, and many have special provisions for language instruction for students who do not have the language of instruction as their mother tongue (often immigrant children).
Approximately two-thirds of the countries have a centralized Ministry/Department of Education, with most of the rest having a distributed system where the central ministry has responsibilities for some areas of decision-making and local municipalities have the responsibilities for administering and implementing education through the schools. Several countries, including Canada, Germany, and the United States have provincial or state control of education.
Nearly all of the PIRLS 2016 participating countries have recently passed ministerial decrees or initiatives aimed to improve reading instruction. For example, Azerbaijan’s Ministry of Education initiated “Zardabi” for the development of primary students’ reading skills; Bulgaria’s Ministry of Education developed a National Strategy for Enhancement and Increasing Literacy with an emphasis on preschool and at-risk groups; Finland’s Ministry of Education and Culture funded a three year “Joy of Reading” project; Ireland has a national policy initiative called Literacy and Numeracy for Learning and Life; and Spain’s Organic Law for the Improvement of Educational Quality includes numerous activities to encourage reading and use of school libraries.
Teacher Education and Professional Development
Typically, the teachers of reading in the PIRLS 2016 countries were trained in four year university degree programs to teach the core primary school subjects including language/reading (see Exhibit 15). However, several countries require master’s degrees even at the primary level, and several countries have specialist teachers beginning at the fourth grade. Most countries include a practicum as part of teacher preparation, and often there is mentoring, some type of induction or internship, or a probationary period for beginning teachers.
Generally, countries require some type of continuing professional development. However, the amounts vary widely from two or three days a year to structured professional development for advancement and standards that must be met.
Language/Reading Curriculum in the Fourth Grade
In most of the PIRLS 2016 countries, reading is seen as an important part of individual and cultural development. Most often, reading is taught as part of the language curriculum and in conjunction with other language skills, typically writing, speaking, and listening. Overarching goals include fourth grade students being able to read aloud and silently accurately and with fluency. Also, students should be able to demonstrate that they understand the meaning of what they read.
The curricula across the PIRLS 2016 countries emphasize that students should have the opportunity to read texts written for a variety of purposes and covering a wide variety of genres that include literary and informational content. Some specifically mention that this includes sources found on the Internet.
The curricula often included reading literature. Some countries’ curricula specifically included language and literature, and most of the rest mentioned reading literature, in particular the literature of the country as well as the rest of the world. Objectives included having students become familiar with various forms of literary work, such as fictional narratives and poetry, and recognize themes, plots, story events, charactersʼ actions, and figurative language. Being able to retell or summarize a story and to respond to literature and discuss it with others also featured across curricula (e.g., shared response to fiction through a class novel) as did students learning to evaluate author’s craft, linguistic style, and coherence.
Most of the curricula also specifically mentioned reading nonfiction or reading to acquire information. For informational and instructive texts, the curricula included students’ ability to locate and retrieve details and information, describe the main ideas, distinguish main from secondary information, connect ideas, and determine the organization of the texts as well as the point of view of the author. Learning to differentiate fact from opinion was mentioned in a number of curricula, especially in the context of Internet reading. There also was frequent mention of students being able to search for information, including use of reference materials (e.g., dictionaries) and libraries.
Many curricula included developing critical and creative thinking skills as part of reading, including linking material to life experiences, analysis, argument/reasoning, and evaluation (see Exhibit 8). The idea of helping students develop different comprehension processes for different types of texts and reading purposes was a goal in a number of countries (e.g., regulate speed to skim or scan, self-monitor attentiveness).
Finally, a number of the curricula highlighted the importance of encouraging students to develop a positive attitude toward reading (e.g., providing engaging materials, teaching them how to choose their own reading materials). The overarching goal is to help students develop a lifelong habit of reading for pleasure and personal growth (see Exhibit 9).
Reading Instruction in the Primary Grades
The majority of the PIRLS 2016 countries have a national curriculum that includes reading, often as part of the language curriculum, and instruction typically follows the national curriculum to at least some degree (see Exhibits 6 and 7). In some countries, the curriculum includes a mandated textbook and instructional materials. However, more often the Ministry or Department of Education has a process for developing a list of approved books and instructional materials that are aligned with the curriculum, and schools or teachers can choose from this list or select their own instructional materials (or both).
A number of countries encourage teachers to use a variety of informational and literary texts as well as media, electronic resources, magazines, and teaching aids. Classroom and local libraries are considered an important part of reading instruction. Technology is emerging as part of reading instruction, with students being asked to look up information on the Internet and teachers taking advantage of a wide variety of Web-based instructional materials. However, there is range of emphasis with a number of countries reporting little use of technology in language and reading instruction (see Exhibit 5). At the other end of the continuum, Bahrain reported electronic classrooms and specially trained teachers, with the curriculum and instructional materials available online for teachers, students, and parents at all times.
The classroom teacher is primarily responsible for reading instruction, including diagnosing struggling readers and helping struggling readers. Only about one-third of the countries have a policy whereby students are screened or tested during the early grades for learning difficulties, including a reading test or diagnostic tool. The majority of countries have reading consultants, counselors, or advisors and special programs to help the classroom teachers with struggling readers, but a few countries do not have reading specialists.
Monitoring Student Progress in Reading
The classroom teacher primarily is responsible for monitoring student progress in reading based on students’ participation and oral and written work. Teachers typically evaluate students several times a year via a report card shared with parents and school administrators. In some countries, schools or regional authorities give standardized tests. National standardized tests or assessments in relation to national curriculum goals are relatively rare in the primary grades, although some countries have assessments in language/reading at the end of Grade 3 or in Grade 4 (see Exhibit 12).
Use and Impact of PIRLS
PIRLS together with other international and national assessments of reading have served to raise awareness about the importance of reading for personal and societal development. A number of educational initiatives, especially in literacy and numeracy, have been launched around the world to improve early learning and reading skills. Countries have worked to increase teacher education and improve reading instruction through reading centers, university training programs, workshops, seminars, and conferences. In particular, additional efforts have been made to help lower achieving students (e.g., the charity Save the Children used PIRLS to support its “Read On. Get On” project).
Since the beginning of PIRLS, there has been increased attention to systemwide monitoring of educational achievement. Many countries have updated their reading curriculum, particularly in the areas of comprehension strategies, analytical skills, and informational reading across the curriculum. Several countries mentioned including longer reading passages and passages from a variety of genres in their textbooks. There also has been increased attention to research about how to improve educational achievement in reading, and new instructional programs have been introduced.
Generally, there have been increased efforts to improve students’ motivation to read and to encourage reading for pleasure (e.g., Finland had a “Joy of Reading” initiative).