United States

Overview of Education System

Public education is decentralized in the United States. Each state governs and operates its own public school system.⁸ Thus, states direct (or delegate to local authorities) all aspects of primary and secondary education, including administrative and budget responsibilities, which would be directed by a ministry of education in a centralized system.⁹ In accordance with state laws, elected or appointed state boards of education set teacher certification requirements, adopt standards and assessments, provide curriculum guidance, and establish attendance and graduation requirements.¹⁰ Chief state school officers support state boards of education by managing and operating state education agencies (SEAs), which are organizations responsible for implementing state education policies, distributing federal and state funds, and supporting local education agencies (LEAs).

Although the balance of state versus local control depends on each state’s laws and regulations, elected or appointed school boards and LEAs typically govern and operate the elementary and secondary schools in their communities. Local school boards enforce state policies, establish local policy and regulations, and hire superintendents to manage and operate LEAs. LEAs manage the operation of elementary and secondary schools by making curriculum decisions, implementing state standards, managing facilities, and operating school programs.¹¹ Policies defining LEA boundaries vary, but most LEAs are contiguous with county or city boundaries. In 2013–2014, there were approximately 13,490 LEAs serving approximately 48 million US elementary and secondary school students.¹²

State and local governments share most of the financial burden for operating their education systems.¹³ In 2013, the federal government provided approximately 9 percent of public school system revenue, and state and local government funds accounted for the remaining 91 percent.¹⁴ The distribution of revenue from state and local sources among public school systems varies substantially because of differences in states’ laws regulating local taxing authority. Property taxes are the predominant source of local revenue for public education in the United States, but the entity with taxing authority varies.¹⁵ In some states, LEAs have the authority to set property tax rates, whereas in others, LEAs depend on city, town, or county governments to generate revenue for education.

The federal government’s role in education has changed over time. The federal government began allocating funding for vocational education programs in 1917, amounting to less than 1 percent of educational revenue received by LEAs.¹⁶ After 1917, federal support for public education grew intermittently until 1965, when Congress passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), which resulted in more federal funding for education.¹⁷ ESEA made equal education requirements a condition for receiving federal funding. Moreover, Title I, a program within ESEA, provides aid to high poverty schools to improve the learning of educationally disadvantaged children. In 1980, the federal Office of Education became the US Department of Education, a Cabinet level department, with the additional responsibilities of promoting improvements in the quality of education through federally supported research, evaluation, and sharing of information.¹⁸

In 2002, Congress reauthorized ESEA as the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, which added accountability provisions and other conditions to receiving federal aid.¹⁹ NCLB required states to administer standardized testing in reading and mathematics in Grades 3 to 8 and in one grade in high school, as well as testing in science at least once during Grades 3 to 5, 6 to 9, and 10 to 12. States set proficiency standards and assessed school performance based on whether their students—both in aggregate and in subgroups (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity, economic status)—made adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward NCLB’s goal of 100 percent proficiency by the 2013–2014 school year.^b Schools failing to meet AYP goals faced increasing consequences for each consecutive year of substandard performance. In 2011, the US Department of Education reduced the consequences for low student performance by issuing waivers for some of NCLB’s accountability requirements to states that implemented new college and career readiness standards and amended accountability policies.²⁰ By 2014, 42 states, Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico had been approved for NCLB waivers.²¹

In December 2015, Congress passed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), which reauthorized ESEA funding and removed the requirement that schools meet AYP goals. Like its predecessor, ESSA requires states to assess school performance through standardized assessments in reading and mathematics, based in part on student performance. ESSA also requires states to factor into their calculation of school performance at least one other noncognitive indicator (e.g., educator engagement) of school quality or student success. States have the flexibility to determine the importance of each measure in their calculation of school performance and outline their own consequences for inadequate performance.²² ESSA also includes new early learning provisions intended to provide economically disadvantaged children increased access to high quality preschool options.

Structure of the Education System

As illustrated in Exhibit 1, education in the United States typically begins with an early childhood education program, after which students enter primary school (elementary school) and progress through lower secondary school (middle school) and upper secondary school (high school). In the 2013–2014 school year, there were approximately 98,270 public schools in the United States.²³ Of these, 68 percent were elementary, 24 percent were secondary, and 6 percent were combined elementary-secondary schools. Special education schools, alternative schools, and other special purpose schools represented about 1 percent of all public schools. In the same year, public schools enrolled 525 students on average, with elementary schools averaging 483 students, secondary schools averaging 694 students, and combined elementary-secondary schools averaging 339 students.²⁴ However, school size was variable, with 19 percent of schools enrolling fewer than 200 students and 9 percent enrolling more than 1,000.²⁵ Each level of the education system is characterized by different student populations, curricula, and instructional practices (see Exhibit 1).

• Preprimary Education—Early childhood education serves students ages 3 to 5 and is not compulsory in the United States. The focus and quality of early childhood education programs vary substantially.²⁶ Most early childhood programs or schools are privately operated and not publicly funded. However, the US Department of Health and Human Services funds the Head Start program to provide preschool education for children from financially disadvantaged backgrounds. Some states and districts offer publicly funded preschool education. In 2014, approximately 65 percent of children ages 3 to 5 were enrolled in some type of preprimary education.²⁷
• Primary Education—Elementary school (ages 5 to 12) is the initial level of public education and consists of some combination of kindergarten through Grade 6.²⁸ The age at which attending school becomes compulsory varies by state, and ranges from 5 to 8.²⁹ Although not a requirement in all states, many children attend kindergarten at age 5. In 2014, the majority of students (75 percent) age 5 were enrolled in a full day kindergarten program.³⁰ A majority of elementary school teachers provide instruction across all core subject areas in self-contained classrooms. However, elementary school students also may receive supplemental instruction outside of self‑contained classrooms from subject specific coaches or specialists, and from special teachers assisting in art, music, and physical education.³¹
• Lower Secondary Education—Middle school or junior high school (ages 12 to 14) is an intermediate level between the elementary and upper secondary school levels.³² Middle schools typically end at Grade 8 and most often include Grades 5 to 8, 6 to 8, or 7 to 8, whereas junior high schools typically include Grades 7 to 9.³³ Middle and junior high school students typically attend departmentalized classes where they move from classroom to classroom for instruction in different subjects.³⁴
• Upper Secondary Education—High school or senior high school (ages 14 to 17) provides specific subject knowledge building on the general foundations developed during elementary and middle school or junior high school.³⁵ In high schools, students start at age 14 in Grade 9 and attend for four years. In senior high schools, students typically enroll at age 15 in Grade 10 and attend for three years.

Exhibit 1: The Structure of Education in the United States³⁶

Students in the United States may attend public or private schools. Public school options include traditional public schools and charter schools, which offer a publicly funded (through state and local revenue) alternative to the traditional education system in the United States. Charter schools typically are operated by educators, parents, or independent organizations. These schools often have more autonomy than traditional public schools, are exempt from some state and local regulations, and usually can enroll students from outside regular attendance zones.³⁷ Although charter school polices vary, most states and districts delegate authority to grant, amend, and terminate charters to state or local education agencies or other government entities. Although autonomous, each charter school must meet the standards stipulated in its charter with the state or local agency to stay in operation. In the 2013–2014 school year, there were approximately 6,470 public charter schools in the United States serving more than 2.5 million students.³⁸

As an alternative to traditional public schools and charter schools, students may attend private schools or receive their education at home. Private schools charge tuition and operate under their own rules and regulations; some private schools are religiously affiliated. In the 2013–2014 school year, there were 33,620 private schools in the United States serving approximately 5.4 million students.³⁹ In 2013, 10 percent of US students were enrolled in private schools, of which about 69 percent had religious affiliations.^40,41 Parents also may educate their children at home. Homeschooled children may be taught by one or both parents, by tutors who come into the home, or by licensed educators through virtual school programs available on the Internet. In 2012, approximately 1.8 million school aged children (3 percent of all school aged children) were reported by their parents to be homeschooled.⁴² State education agencies are responsible for oversight of homeschooled students within the state.