Teachers, Teacher Education, and Professional Development
Teacher Education Specific to Reading
The traditional educational pathway for a public school teacher includes a degree from a four year college or university and completion of a teacher education program, including a practicum of supervised teaching experience. The majority of early childhood educators (preschool through Grade 3) and elementary school teachers (Grades 1 to 5) earn a bachelor’s degree from a school of education, whereas secondary school teachers may earn a bachelor’s degree in a specific subject area, a bachelor’s degree with a double major in the subject area and education, or a master’s degree in education in addition to the bachelor’s degree in the subject area. However, it is not required of early childhood and elementary school teachers to receive a degree from a college of education to become a certified teacher. In recent years, there has been a growth in alternative pathways to teaching; potential new teachers who already hold a bachelor’s degree in a specific content area may gain pedagogical skills without an additional four year degree.46 During the 2011–2012 school year, 15 percent of public school teachers entered teaching through an alternative teaching program.47
The content and structure of teacher education programs is left to the discretion of the institutions, with the understanding that students meet state standards for certification or licensure. Although states vary in their licensure requirements, most require satisfactory performance on a statewide test for teacher certification. These tests often assess teaching performance, knowledge of specific subject matter, general knowledge, and pedagogy. Some states require teachers to obtain a master’s degree as part of maintaining a license.
From 2002 to 2015, the No Child Left Behind Act required that all students be taught by “highly qualified teachers,” defined as having (1) a bachelor’s degree; (2) full state certification; and (3) demonstrated competency, as defined by the state, in each core academic subject that they teach. In most states, teachers demonstrate subject matter competency with the passage of a state developed test to gain certification.48 The Every Student Succeeds Act eliminated the highly qualified teacher requirement and instead requires all teachers in schools receiving Title I funds to meet their states’ licensing requirements.
Requirements for Ongoing Professional Development in Reading for Teachers
Professional development is training provided by an agency or institution for its employees to improve skills in a specific area or learn about new developments in a particular field. Typically, teachers receive professional development, referred to as in-service training, from their local education agency (LEA). In some cases, the state assesses teachers’ professional development needs and works with LEAs to arrange the delivery of training. In other instances, the LEA or school principal decides the content and format of the assistance. Consequently, the content and rigor of professional development often varies substantially across districts and, in some cases, across schools within districts. Professional development programs usually are one or two days in duration and are offered (with pay) before students return to school at the beginning of the school year and/or during the year when students are not in attendance. During the 2011–2012 school year, 79 percent of public school teachers reported receiving one or more days of scheduled time for professional development during the regular school year.49 Also during the 2011–2012 school year, 47 percent of teachers who received professional development in reading instruction reported eight or fewer hours of training, and 42 percent of teachers reported receiving nine to 32 hours of training.50
Starting in 2002, the No Child Left Behind Act required states to provide scientifically based professional development to teachers in core subjects, including reading, and allocated Title II funding to states and districts, in part for the provision of professional development activities. These professional development activities included efforts that improved teachers’ knowledge in the subjects they taught and aligned with content standards, advanced teachers’ understanding of instructional strategies, and enabled teachers to become highly qualified. In 2016, 38 states offered written statutes, rules, or regulations that required teacher preparation and/or ongoing professional development in reading.51 During the 2011–2012 school year, 57 percent of public school teachers reported spending professional development time on reading instruction.52 Some federal programs also required the provision of job-embedded professional development, which targeted professional development activities using teacher evaluation data to enhance instructional practices.53 In 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act updated the federal definition of professional development to require that activities are job embedded; ongoing; developed with educator input; integrated into broader school improvement plans; and available to all school staff, including paraprofessionals.